Literature Rewiew of International Students' Acculturation Strategies

Literature Rewiew of International Students' Acculturation Strategies
Acculturation Strategies
Berry (1997) proposed integration, assimilation, separation, and marginalization as strategies to classify the acculturation attitudes of immigrant groups and the host culture. Emphasizing changes affecting acculturation at the community and individual levels, this term is used to describe the process of acculturation: In Berry's (2005) own words: "the dual process of cultural and psychological change that takes place as a result of contact between two or more cultural groups and their individual members" (Berry, 1997; Berry, 2005, p. 698, as cited in Smith & Khajawa, 2011). Cultural interaction will have inevitable consequences, culture conflict and acculturative stress. At the level of individuals and groups, differences will be observed in the ways of coping with acculturation stress and achieving successful adaptation. Strategies of non-dominant groups and its individuals' strategies defined as follow: Assimilation occurs when individuals from these groups do not prioritize maintaining their cultural identity and actively seek daily interaction with other cultures. Separation, on the other hand, is chosen by individuals who highly value their original culture but prefer to limit interactions with other cultural groups. Integration signifies a desire to maintain one's heritage culture while also engaging in regular interactions with other cultural groups. Lastly, marginalization occurs when there's minimal interest or opportunity to maintain one's heritage culture due to enforced cultural loss, coupled with a lack of interest in establishing relations with other groups, often due to experiences of exclusion or discrimination (Berry, 2005). Studies have shown that among the four strategies, integration is the most adaptive and assimilation the least adaptive. Studies with Chinese students living in Australia, Irish immigrants in London, Chinese immigrants in Hong Kong and Polish immigrants in Italy found that those who adopted the integration strategy were more adaptive to foreign society in terms of sociocultural and psychological features. Moreover, another study with young immigrants in Norway has indicated negative correlation between integration strategy and acculturative stress (Zheng, Sang, & Wang, 2003; Curran 2003; Hui et al., 2015; Kosic, Manetti & Sam, 2006; Sam & Berry, 1995, as cited in Ng, Wang, Chan, 2017).
3.3 Acculturative Stress
Berry (1995) defined the acculturative stress as “one kind of stress, in which the stressors are identified as having their source in the process of acculturation; with a particular set of stress behaviors that occur during acculturation, such as lowered mental health status (especially confusion, anxiety, depression), feelings of marginality and alienation, heightened psychosomatic symptoms, and identity confusion” (Berry, 1995, p. 479, as cited in Sullivan & Kashubeck-West, 2015). Berry (2006), after explaining the factors affecting acculturative stress and adaptation, stated that psychological acculturation is cognitively affected by many daily life changes and classified the resulting difficulties as acculturative stress. Individuals who fail to apply appropriate coping methods may experience high levels of stress and vice versa. Accordingly, achieving adaptation, defined as “the relatively stable changes that take place in an individual or group in response to external demands”, is the long-term goal. (Berry, 2006; Berry, 2006, p.52, as cited in Smith & Khajawa, 2011). Although acculturative stress symptoms resemble those of other stressors, they emerge from adaptation to a foreign culture and may have psychopathological consequences such as somatic manifestations, depression, anxiety and decreased selfesteem (Berry, 1995, as cited in Sullivan & Kashubeck-West, 2015). Psychological and sociocultural adaptation, which were first defined separately by Ward and colleagues, include affective and behavioural adaptations respectively. While psychological adaptation has elements such as well-being, self-esteem, physical well-being, sociocultural adaptation covers the individual's ability to blend into society and manage daily routines. Ward et al. (2001) expanded Berry's model by modifying the cultural learning and social identification perspectives. They highlighted culture-specific behavioral skills that influence cultural adaptation, separating it from psychological adaptation. (Ward, Bochner, & Furnham, 2001, as cited in Smith & Khajawa, 2011). In the review aiming to explain the psychological acculturation experience of international students, Smith and Khajawa (2011) examined various acculturation models with distinct emphases found in the literature. Several possible stressors for international students have been determined, including: Language, Educational Stressors, Sociocultural Stressors, Discrimination, and Practical Stressors. (Smith & Khajawa, 2011). In this study, ‘gender’ will be accepted as a possible stressor, according to previous literature.
3.4 Language
According to Chen (1999), second language anxiety as a stressor interacting with other stressors comprehensively, affects domains of academic and sociocultural adaptation. Academic activities such as understanding, writing, forming questions and social skills including making friends, networking are in the scope of language barrier as a stressor. A qualitative study conducted with academic staff by Trice (2003) revelaed that English proficiency has significant effect on academic performance. Also, Barratt and Huba (1994) demonstrated that English proficiency has relation with both self-esteem and interpersonal relations with locals. (Chen, 1999; Mori 2000; Trice, 2003; Baratt & Huba, 1994, as cited in Smith & Khajawa, 2011). Lay and Nyuguen (1998) used lenght of time/stay ''as an approximation of the respondent's level of assimilation or familiarity with the host society'', emphasizing longer stay for international students ensure more opportunity to interact in foreign language. Lopez and Pui (2014) indicated that higher language confidence is associated with greater length of stay. Therefore Gaudet and Clement (2005) have shown that greater higher English language confidence has positive relation with cultural identity maintanence which is connected to integrative acculturation strategy ( Lay & Nyuguen, 1998; Gaudet & Clement, 2005, as cited in Lopez & Pui, 2014). Consistently, Duru and Poyrazlı (2011) conducted another study with Turkish international students revealing that higher level of English competency may provide greater general adjustment in social and educational settings (Duru&Poyrazlı, 2011).
3.5 Educational Stressors
Obviously academic stress is not a factor solely affecting international students. However, in a study conducted with international students in the U.S.A., Misra, Crist, and Burant (2003) revealed that students tend to react more to academic stress than to other stressors during their adjustment to the educational environment. In a longitudinal study conducted by Rasmi, Safdar, and Lewis (2009), it was determined that international students experiencing academic stress developed long-term psychological stress. Another study conducted with African and Western international students in China by Hashim and Yang (2003) yielded similar results with Rasmi et al. (2009) (Misra, Crist & Burant, 2003; Rasmi, Safdar & Lewis, 2009; Hashim & Yang, 2003, as cited in Smith & Khajawa, 2011). Performance expectation that international students are sensitive to; the perception of academic performance, whether positive or negative, will influence their adaptation process. It can be said that success fosters a sense of security in adapting to the new environment, while failure generates a feeling of losing control on foreign setting (Chen, 1999). Another factor could be the mismatch between the quality of educational institutions and the efficiency of services provided, failing to meet expectations. It has been highlighted by Sherry et al. (2004) that international students tend to have a lower perception of educational institution services compared to local students and Khawaja and Dempsey (2008) revealed that unmet expectations in some way negatively affect the adaptation process (Sherry et al., 2004; Khawaja & Dempsey, 2008, as cited in Smith & Khawaja, 2011). Another stress factor could arise when adapting to a new teaching style; students raised in a rote learning culture might face some challenges in adapting to the critical thinking method emphasized in Western universities. In a study conducted with Asian international students in the U.S.A., Liberman (1994) found that the interactive teaching style and critical thinking posed challenges for the students. In addition, students in the study reported observing behaviors by local students towards university/teaching staff that they described as informal and disrespectful. (Aubrey, 1991; Liberman, 1994, as cited in Smith & Khawaja, 2011). In a study conducted with Turkish international students in Japan, Sozen, Tanaka, and Nakano (2018) highlighted that the passive styles of Japanese supervisors in decision-making and planning were emphasized as a significant stress factor by the students. However, it was noted that this led to the development of academic self-reliance, consequently increasing self-motivation and conscientiousness. The study also underscored the challenges Turkish international students face in adapting to the vertical hierarchy within the Laboratory/Zemi/Kenkyushitsu practices in the Japanese education system (Sozen, Tanaka & Nakano, 2018). Tatar (2005) highlighted that Turkish educational culture generally does not encourage oral participation, which might explain the low participation of Turkish international students in American classrooms. Studies have identified themes determining Turkish students' low participation as: education culture, environmental factors, and dynamics of the classroom (Tatar, 2005; Burkham, 2010, as cited in Cakmakci, 2020). According to Erturk (2022), Turkish international students in Hungary mentioned their satisfaction with academic staff; accordingly the non-authoritarian educational climate and the low power distance between students and staff positively contributed to the students' adaptation processes. However, students pointed out that school facilities significantly impact their academic experiences; faculties that do not provide opportunities for socialization and physical environments such laboratories, libraries, etc., were reported as inadequate in meeting their needs (Erturk, 2022).
3.6 Socicultural Stressors
In the research conducted with Vietnamese international students in France, Brisset et al. (2010) indicated that attachment intimacy and trait-anxiety were relevant to the process of adaptation. Wang and Mallinckrodt (2006) found that psychological distress arising from the sociocultural adjustment problems of Chinese international students in the USA caused attachment avoidance and anxiety (Brisset et al. 2010; Wang & Mallincdkrodt, 2006). Sawir and his colleagues (2008) reported, based on a qualitative research conducted with 200 Australian international students, that two-thirds of the students experienced feelings of loneliness and isolation during their initial months (Sawir et al., 2008). In addition, Asian students may find it difficult to communicate with local people due to their belonging to a collectivistic culture. Unlike collectivistic culture, which requires interdependence and relationality, they may have difficulties with the elements of individualistic culture and may have problems making friends (Triandis, 1999; Mori, 2000; Yeh & Inose, 2023, as cited in Smith & Khawaja, 2011). Turkish international students in Japan found Japanese punctuality and societal orderliness impressive. However, they faced challenges understanding unwritten rules and social cues, making it difficult to gauge the social atmosphere. Differences in personal space, solitude, and intimacy levels between people were also noted. Moreover, they observed varying cultural priorities and noticed a discrepancy between expressed behaviors and genuine feelings in Japanese culture (Sozen, Tanaka & Nakano, 2018). Erturk's findings (2022) revealed challenges faced by Turkish international students in Hungary regarding psychological and sociocultural adjustment due to limited interaction with non-English-speaking locals. Nonetheless, participants felt a familial closeness and identified shared behavioral, attitudinal, and customary traits with Hungarians. However, they highlighted differences in relationship. Additionally, the participants stated that connecting with other international students helped overcome their adjustment issues (Erturk, 2022).
3.7 Discrimination
As an acculturative stressor, discrimination has repeatedly emerged as a prominent issue in research among international students from Asia, Africa, India, Latin America, and the Middle East. International students from these regions experienced severe discrimination, according to Lee and Rice (2007), students reported discrimination included sentiments of inferiority, outright verbal insults, discrimination when applying for jobs, and violent attacks.  (Hanassab, 2006; Lee & Rice, 2007; Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007 as cited in Smith & Khawaja 2011). Constantine et al. (2003) noted that Non-European international students might face discrimination resulting low self-esteem, depression and various mental health issues. Schmitt, Speaks, and Branscombe (2003) suggested that discrimination might prompt them to seek relationship with international students rather than host communities (Constantine et al., 2003; Schmitt, Speaks & Branscombe, 2003, as cited in Poyrazli & Grahame, 2007). Poyrazli and Lopez (2007) found that level of perceived discrimination predicts level of homesickness of international students; Duru and Poyrazlı (2011) also, in their study with Turkish international students studying in U.S.A, revelaed that the discrimination has negative relationship with social connectedness (Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007; Duru & Poyrazlı, 2011). Jamauldin et al. (2018) stated that discriminatory experiences among international students have a negative impact on their intentions to remain loyal to the host culture (Jamauldin et al., 2018, as cited in Erturk, 2022). As per Erturk's investigation in 2022, Turkish international students residing in Hungary conveyed experiencing emotional disconnection due to their educational institutions' failure to implement culturally sensitive policies. Some of the participants emphasized encountering discrimination not on the basis of their Turkish identity but due to their status as foreigners (Erturk, 2022).
3.8 Practical Stressors
           An array of practical or lifestyle-related acculturative pressures may be encountered by international students. These could include quite higher tuition costs and restrictions on employment in the host nation (Chen, 1999; Mori, 2000 as cited in Smith & Khawaja, 2011). According to research conducted by Li and Kaye (1998) as well as Galloway and Jenkins (2009) focusing on international students, financial difficulties emerged as the primary concern (Li & Kaye, 1998; Galloway & Jenkins, 2009, as cited in Wenhua & Zhe, 2013).
3.9 Coping Mechanisms and Acculturative Stress of International Students
In the acculturation process of international students, coping has a deniable influence. Even there are miscellaneous types of coping, as Folkman's (2008) problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping, and meaning-focused coping, literature conducted with international students mostly focused on maladaptive coping mechanisms (as cited in Smith & Khawaja, 2011). Emotion-oriented coping and acculturative stress were shown to be positively correlated by the study including 220 Asian foreign students in the United States (Ra & Trusty, 2015). Studies have revealed the use of maladaptive coping strategies among international students of Asian origin. In a study conducted in the United States, higher scores on obsessive-compulsiveness were identified among Asian international students by Cheng, Leong, and Geist (1993). In Chataway and Berry's (1989) study in Canada, it was found that Asian international students adopted less positive thinking coping strategies and engaged in maladaptive coping strategies such as drug and alcohol use, or changes in diet. Maladaptive perfectionism in Asian students has been highlighted as a predictor of depression by Wei et al (2007, as cited in Smith & Khawaja). According to Mori (2000), acculturative stress can lead to somatic symptoms as well as psychological distress such as isolation, helplessness, hopelessness, sadness, feelings of loss, anger, disappointment, and a sense of inferiority among international students. Studies conducted with Asian students have shown that acculturative stress was a significant predictor of depression and was linked to lower levels of self-esteem; additionally, a positive correlation between acculturative stress and depression also found (Wei et al., 2007; Wilton & Constantine, 2003; Lee et al., 2004, as cited in Smith & Khawaja, 2011). Research conducted with Turkish international students in the USA indicated that perceived social support from Turkish friends emerged as a significant predictor of psychological adaptation. Maintaining cultural identity through connections with co-nationals appeared to contribute to better psychological adaptation among these students. Additionally, the study found that students with higher levels of self-esteem tended to demonstrate greater psychological adaptation (Bektas, Demir & Bowden, 2009). Erturk's (2022) research on Turkish international students in Germany underscored the significant role of social support in alleviating stress during their adjustment to the new environment. The study revealed that participants reported having robust and encouraging networks within their families and diverse peer circles, encompassing both local individuals international students. Moreover, within the same study, Turkish students in Hungary noted various advantages in their daily lives, particularly the ease of access to Turkey owing to its geographical proximity. This accessibility to support networks from Turkey notably facilitated the adaptation process for students in Hungary (Erturk, 2022).
3.10 Gender Perspective
As modern society is based on a structure in which men are structurally more advantageously positioned than women, there is no such country in the world without a gender gap (World Economic Forum, 2014, as cited in Krys et al., 2018). Gender stereotypes are based on recurring cultural norms that affect everyone, such as personal characteristics, activities, roles and physical attributes, and therefore trying to conform to social expectations significantly influences people's personal choices (Rudman & Glick, 2021). It has been suggested that male stereotypes are compatible with individualistic cultural values (success, achievement) and female stereotypes are compatible with collectivistic values (family, nation loyalty) (Markus & Kityama, 1991 as cited in Rudman & Glick, 2021). However; according to Cuddy et al. (2015 as cited in Krys et al., 2018) gender stereotypes are moderated by culture and its core values which are more advantegeous for men. By the help of reanalysing gender stereotype data; it has been accepted that culture has significant impact of perception of genders; also it has been revealed that (a) the more collectivistic a culture is, the more collectivistic traits are stereotyped as masculine, and contrastingly that (b) the more individualistic a culture is, the more individualistic traits are stereotyped as masculine. The research conducted proved that individual differences inventories covering masculine and feminine traits resulted differently in collectivistic cultures and were not consistent with previous studies (Cuddy et al., 2015). Also the research contributes literature on intersectionality, which focuses on “the meaning and consequences of multiple categories of social group membership” (Cole, 2009, p. 170, as cited in Cuddy et al., 2015). Intersectionality analyses experiences of exclusion and subordination by taking into account multiple identities and decomposing them through a gendered lens. It does this not only in terms of gender, class and race, but also in terms of other vulnerabilities, so that the vulnerabilities associated with international student status (being in a foreign environment, often lacking adequate language and cultural skills in the host country, being separated from family and friends, and often having insufficient financial resources) can be included in an intersectionality analysis (Cuddy et al., 2015).
Accordingly, gender emerges as a factor that yields contentious outcomes among factors influencing the motivations and adaptation process of international students. According to Ataca and Berry (2002, as cited in Otlu, 2010), predictors of adaptation operate differently for women and men; hence, they should be evaluated through distinct perspectives. In the studies conducted with Japanese students in the US (Ono & Piper, 2004) and the UK (Habu, 2000), the majority of participants chose to return to their home country after graduation and opted to work in foreign-owned companies perceived to be more egalitarian. It is highlighted that Japanese women are directed towards overseas education by society, impacting their lifestyles (as cited in Moskal, 2020). For instance, Holloway et al. (2012, as cited in Moskal, 2020) in their research with Kazakhstani students in the UK, revealed that female students aimed to acquire cultural capital through education abroad. A study conducted with Indian students in Canada by Sondhi and King (2017, as cited in Moskal, 2020), which incorporated a gender perspective, highlights the potential divergence in experiences and outcomes among international students based on gender. In the study conducted by Bang et al. (2008, as cited in Otlu, 2010), it was observed that female international students exhibited higher stress levels and lower adaptation levels compared to males; emphasizing the significance of gender as a key variable. Additionally, despite experiencing more stress, they were found to provide more social support. According to another study conducted with 204 foreign students studying in the United States, escape-avoidance coping strategies were found to be predictive of sociocultural adaption in female students. The deeper attachments that female students showed to their native culture may have made it more difficult for them to adjust to the host culture. In addition, compared to men, women sought out more social support and showed more positive thinking. A lower probability of remaining in the United States after graduation was associated with a higher level of sadness, a lower level of English proficiency, and more difficulties adjusting to a new culture (Sümer 2009, as cited in Otlu, 2010). One other study with international higher education students in Singapore, gender was identified as a significant factor affecting overall satisfaction, with women being less satisfied. The study emphasized the need for educational institutions to provide equal opportunities to address gender-specific issues (Min & Khoon, 2013). As observed in studies involving international students, gender has been reported as a contributing factor, with female students experiencing more adjustment issues than males. The primary reason for this adjustment challenge can be attributed to the expectations imposed on women by traditional gender roles (Marville, 1981, as cited in Lee et al., 2009). However, while the factor of gender roles can serve as an acculturation stressor, in some studies, it has emerged as a motivator. Ying and Han (2006, as cited in Lee et al., 2009) found that Asian international female students exposed to Western society and gender roles exhibited better adaptation compared to males. In line with that female Korean international students in US scored higher adjustment levels than male counterparts, it is further explained that stereotype of femininity is not effective as before on today’s female students (Lee et al., 2009).

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