A review of Global Psychology

Abstract

This research report investigates the possibility of globalizing or internationalizing psychology by reviewing intercultural psychology literature which contains common and different concepts and phenomena. Analyzing the similarities and the differences relating to behavioral science is not a new trend. Beside the literature review, this report summarizes general approaches, specialized examples, and previous studies related to the achievement of Global Psychology. Criticisms on the gap between theory and practice of Global Psychology also evaluated. Although both requirements and obstructions are on a global level, technology and core interventions make global psychology seems highly possible.

Introduction
Psychology and psychological applications reached every part of the world rapidly in the last decades. In this progress; technical, conceptual and methodological aspects of Euro-American psychology have been converted to indigenous approaches causing problematic theoretical statements. Both indigenization and globalization have reflected the fact of a great misunderstanding upon theoretical and practical universality, at the same time the conflict between these approaches fed each other. After years of research, enormous amount of interest in cross-cultural and intercultural psychology shifted away from differences to similarities between different cultural groups and individuals. As every branch of human science, psychology has been affected by globalization process. Thus, achieving a global vision over psychology became possible by the presence of global commons in psychology which are uncovered by the help of other disciplines such as anthropology, biology and linguistics (Berry, 2013). Global Psychology is a worldwide operation which aims to unify the communication and networking among psychologists, to provide considerable capacity for data analysis including cross-cultural comparisons and practice (Stevens & Gielen, 2007). Internationalizing of psychology may provide essential functions: encouraging cross-national understanding and good-will among psychologists, providing a self-guarding exercise for the concept of culture-dependence, ability to form international research projects of professional practice, improving cross-national training curricular activities (Pawlik, 1996). Mainly the International Union of Psychological Science (IUPsyS) and other organizations associated to IUPsyS aspire to develop a global discipline which is assembling theoretical, practical and ethical approaches for the unbiased psychology (Berry, 2013). Another general usage of the term ‘Global Psychology’ is to mention solutions on a global scale toward issues concerning whole humanity such as gender roles and gender-typed behavior, childrearing practices, value systems, the struggles of disempowered groups (Stevens & Gielen, 2007). In this research report, Global Psychology term is accepted as capability to unify global commons of psychology. Whether Global Psychology focuses gratifying consequences, there are still considerable obstacles such as conceptual differences, linguistic barriers, and different ethical principles.

Psychological Concepts Across Cultures
Understanding the conceptual differences across cultures will provide a broad vision over theoretical base of Global Psychology. Even if this broad vision tends to show the goals of Global Psychology unreachable, remarkable suggestions will be shown. Most of cross-cultural studies has been conducted with the frame of individualism and collectivism. The fundamental issue in this frame is that while individualism has been presented as modern, collectivism has been presented as traditional. Thus, this distinctive approach characterized by anthropological method of data collection, led to perception over psychological concepts more ‘Westernized’ (Deutscher, 2010 as cited in Allik et al., 2012).
Self-Concept
Self-concept has a dynamic structure shaped by personal experiences and it includes self-awareness and self-reflection which are undeniable human universals (Spiro, 1993 as cited in Kirmayer et al., 2007). Furthermore, self-concept requires a narrative structure to be descriptive in itself. Reflecting the self, relevant to others, relationships and boundaries. For this reason, self is also constructed by cultural concepts and perception. (Averil 1985, as cited in Kirmayer, 2007). Portrayal of self, changes across cultures and in some cultures, it is in an indescribable form which also affects other psychological dynamics.
Personality
Personality is the manifestation of the self which correlates unique patterns of thoughts, behaviors and feelings. In connection with the self-concept, personality and its traits are interpreted differently in each culture. To exemplify; in the Traditional Chinese Confucian culture, definition of personality is related to relationship with others, being part of a family or larger social groups. This perception of the personality is evaluated as sociocentric (Tu Wei-Ming, 1985, as cited in Kirmayer et al., 2007). The Hindu concept of personality described as dividual and permeable which steadily changes (Bharati, 1985 as cited in Kirmayer, 2007). The cultural classification of the self-concept and the personality ensures the general approach over healing systems. While in an egocentric culture psychotherapy is successful, in a sociocentric culture polyvocal collective rituals and/or family therapies are more convenient. However, in the modern world, these stereotypical statements are inoperative.
Personality trait studies may indicate unexpected results on ranking of the cultures. For example, according to self-reports, the most ‘conscientious’ – determined, strong-willed, organized, dutiful, and deliberate – people live in Burkina Faso and Congo and the least conscientious people live in Japan and Korea (Mõttus, Allik, & Realo, 2010 as cited in Allik et al., 2012). Another extended list of findings demonstrated that nations with high self-reported conscientiousness were not less but more corrupt which is paradoxical (Oishi & Roth, 2009 as cited in Allik et al., 2012). In individual level it could be said that the ‘Big Five’ personality traits have expressions in every culture, related to human nature. Even the intercultural assessments provide practical information about national characteristics for daily life, applying specified traits to all members of a culture may cause harmful stereotypes (McCrae, 2001). Another problem is assuming the all members of a country share some culture which is called fallacy the uniformity assumption. Characterizing the sample carefully in terms of age, gender, social class, and other relevant groupings may prevent psychologists to be discriminative.
On the other hand, longitudinal behavior genetics have indicated that genes are more dominant determinants of personality traits than child-rearing practices, cross-cultural studies have endorsed that five-factor structure of personality traits and their developmental course in adulthood is universal. Although cultural effects on personality is acceptable, culture is not the major determinant (McCrae, 2001).
 Resilience and Psychological Healing
Resilience is an ability which helps people to overcome crisis and resilience also provides ability to return to pre-crisis status. Identification of resilience is directly related to culture. Even if a cultural value system argues the most of difficulties are facilitative, researches have shown the fact that in some context difficulties may be traumatogenic. For example, Afghan children in armed conflict settings are patient and motivated to adherence to culture, at the same time they reported feels of entrapment and familial and personal distress (Eggerman & Panter-Brick, 2010 as cited in Ragvahan & Sandanapitchai, 2020). In an Israeli kindergarten, teachers organize unpredictable situations with speeches about how to deal with threats and danger as a result of living in a warzone. For this condition authors argued that teachers’ action will help children to improve their resilience in some circumstances, in future (Golden & Mayseless, 2008 as cited in Ragvahan & Sandanapitchai, 2020). The absence of literature related to Resilience and cultural factors causes controversial interpretations. Only a small number of studies mentions empirical factors with theoretical factors (Ragvahan & Sandanapitchai, 2020).
Cultural variables are effective on psychological healing processes too, the way to examine effective therapy for a culture is evaluating both scientific approach and practical point of view (Tseng & McDermott, 1981 as cited in Kirmayer, 2007). There are several indigenous and modern therapeutic methods which have different natures and degrees of the relations with culture. Some of them are simply related or strongly influenced and strongly embedded. In terms of mental health, indigenous healing methods are efficient and often provide psychotherapeutic effects on clients too. To point out the true psychological healing model for a culture, requires well understood contextual demands. For example, action oriented direct guidance is expected by typical Japanese psychotherapy patient, they tend to play ‘pathological’ dependent role. This role expectations differs in each culture. In Western approach, desires are about providing patients autonomy and independence (Tatara, 1982 as cited in Kirmayer, 2007). In India, philosophical and religious beliefs have a great influence on psychotherapy patients as a consequence of karma doctrine and the concept of reincarnation. For this reason, psychotherapy has limited impact on Indian patients (Varma, 1982 as cited in Kirmayer, 2007). Socio-cultural elements, philosophical approaches, politics and ideologies change the expectations and influence of psychotherapy, for this reason adjustments in psychotherapy are needed.
In an intercultural psychotherapy session, an incongruence may occur, because of cultural the difference between patient and therapist in both verbal and nonverbal levels (Wolfgang, 1985 as cited in Kirmayer, 2007). Problem caused by ethnical and cultural incongruence indicates other questions which could be answered by therapists’ management skills. For instance, transference and countertransference process acquires a cultural dimension. Both therapist and patient develop a relationship between their ethnocultural backgrounds which have to be negotiated. On the contrary, actually every psychotherapy session is cross-cultural, because there is not an internalized identical construction between two people’ cultural world (Wohl, 1989 as cited in Kirmayer, 2007).
Discussion
Some of the well-known concepts of psychology and their relationships with the culture have been examined with examples. In the global aspect, inconsistencies and lack of consensus over concepts remind different questions about the globalization of psychology will be possible? Even scientific researches indicate different interpretations of results, cultural relativism could be softened in psychological studies without proliferation of psychologies? Danzinger (1990) argues that production and distribution of psychology supplied by Western societies. This results in scientific, personal and social assimilation, non-Western psychologists are orienting themselves to Western organizations (Berry, 2013). Sampling methods and data collection are another questionable matter for researchers, recent analysis of papers published in the top journals of six subdisciplines of psychology between 2003–2007 showed that 96% of the subjects were from United States or other English-speaking countries. It is obvious that psychological phenomena studies have to include heterogenous populations to be accurate (Arnet, 2008 as cited in Allik, 2012). Social Science Citation Index shows that American, British, and other English-language journals have overwhelming advantage which makes other languages less presented (Draguns, 2001). Accurate cross-cultural data collection occurs in a few ways, developing a popular questionnaire which will be translated into an enormous number of languages. For example, NEO PI-R and The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire have ineffective methods in terms of data collection. Establishing an international research consortium is another way to reach accurate large-scale cross-cultural data collection (Lynn & Martin, 1995; McCrae, 2002; van Hemert, van de Vijver, Poortinga, & Georgas, 2002, as cited in Allik, 2012). Berry (2013) argues that a balance should be provided between dominant Western psychology and nondominant indigenous psychology, so Berry determined three prevention strategies for members of nondominant cultural communities. First strategy is avoiding the external source offered by dominant psychology, secondary prevention is limiting and ignoring the impact of external influence, last one is criticizing the Western psychology and providing alternative materials (such as locally relevant research concepts, empirical findings, and teaching materials). Improvement of indigenous psychology is accepted as a balancer, in this point of view (Berry, 2013). Another criticism of the search for indigenous psychologies is about proliferation. Because the proliferation of psychologies mostly highlighted the behavioral differences in each culture. Although indigenous psychology research emphasizing differences and delay the goal of globalization of psychology, cross-cultural studies focus on the common process and functions which underlie behaviors day by day (Poortinga, 1999 as cited in Berry, 2013).
Conclusion
Psychology is a multidimensional discipline, and the globalization is a process. Differences across-cultures, even among each person will be permanent. However, global psychology aims a long-term goal which includes a sensitivity to cultural specifics, cultural generalities, and cultural biases. Because as a science psychology defends the multi-linguality and multi-culturality in itself and sees this variety as an advantage. Thus, accepting globalization of psychology as a natural process does not mean any intervention is needed. Culture-fair academic training of future psychologists is a prior goal. Building accurate, objective cross-cultural assessments is another. Since proper grounding is an urgent need for Global Psychology. For example, Advanced Research Training Seminars (ARTS) which have been proposed by The IUPsyS. ARTS were for young scholars from developing countries. Although ARTS were at regional level, the IUPsyS the International Network of the Young Child and the Family which is at global level (Pawlik, 1996). Global Psychology may reach the goals by providing international cooperation on definition of problem, choice of method, data collection and data analysis.

‘’However, in my view, there is now sufficient evidence of a basis for developing a global psychology, one that is rooted in common shared psychological processes. This view is sustained because no cross-cultural research has yet established the presence of a basic psychological process in one culture that is absent in another culture.’’ (Berry, 2013)

Tugberk SEV - October, 2021