Otoman empire 1. Ahmet

His father is III. He was born in Manisa on April 28, 1590, during Mehmed's governorship of Saruhan. His mother is Handan Sultan. Celâlî could not go to the flag because of his interregnum. He ascended the throne at the age of four upon the death of his father on 18 Rajab 1012 (22 December 1603).

His first work, III. Murad and III. The decision was to send Safiye Sultan (Venetian Baffa), who caused various events with her interventions in state affairs during the reign of Mehmed II, to the Old Palace. Meanwhile, the war with Iran and Austria continued. While Cigalazâde Sinan Pasha was appointed as the eastern serdar, Grand Vizier Malkoç Yavuz Ali Pasha was sent to Hungary. Also around this time, Shah Abbas I captured Revan at the end of the siege, entered Kars and could only be stopped in front of Ahıska. Sinan Pasha departed late from Istanbul on 15 June 1604 and arrived in Kars on 8 November. Sinan Pasha, who did not go against Shah Abbas even though the situation was favorable and wintered in Van, moved to Erzurum upon the attack of the shah. Thus, it caused unrest among the serdar, commanders and soldiers and caused a campaign season to be wasted. Acting at the head of the army again in the 1605 campaign season, Sinan Pasha marched to take back Tabriz. However, Sinan Pasha's situation was shaken when Erzurum Beylerbeyi Köse Sefer Pasha acted separately from the main army and was captured, and the army was defeated by the sudden raid of Shah Abbas and retreated to Van and then to Diyarbekir. Sinan Pasha's execution of Aleppo Beylerbeyi Canbolatoğlu Hüseyin Pasha, who came to his aid with a large force, on the pretext that he was late, caused a major rebellion to begin. After his death in Diyarbekir shortly after this incident, Shah Abbas captured Ganja, Shirvan and Shemaha.

While these events were continuing on the Iranian front, Grand Vizier Malkoç Ali Pasha, who departed from Istanbul on June 3, 1604 and arrived in Belgrade on July 26, died here, and Lala Mehmed Pasha was appointed as Grand Vizier and Western Serdardar. The serdar, who first took back the castles of Pest and then Vaç, laid siege to Esztergom, but was forced to retreat to Belgrade on 23 November 1604 due to the onset of rain and snow storms and the opposition of the soldiers. Meanwhile, the increasing pressure from Catholic Austria on the Protestant Hungarian people caused the Lord of Transylvania, Etienne Bocskai (Boçkay), who fought for the independence of Transylvania and was previously a supporter of Austria, to send an ambassador to Istanbul and ask for help. After Bocskai was promised help for the kingdom of Transylvania, he also joined the expedition with his forces. Lala Mehmed Pasha, who marched on Esztergom in the summer of 1605, first captured Visegrad and Tepedelen. Thus, the defenders of Esztergom, who were in a difficult situation, surrendered the castle on November 4, 1605. On the other hand, Bocskai took Uyvar with the help of Turkish forces, while Tiryâkî Hasan Pasha conquered Veszprém and Polata. After these successes, Etienne Bocskai was given the Erdel and Hungarian crown by Lala Mehmed Pasha. Following this, Sarhoş İbrâhim Pasha, the Beylerbeyi of Kanije, organized a raid on the Austrian province of Istria together with the Tatar and Hungarian forces.

Grand Vizier Lala Mehmed Pasha, who was summoned to Istanbul due to the fact that the Celâlî rebellions in Anatolia had become dangerous and on the other hand, there was no success on the Iranian front, was appointed serdar over Iran. Thus, the grand vizier's plan to save all of Hungary from the Austrian invasion could not be realized. His attempts at the sultan on this issue did not yield any results, and he died suddenly while preparing for an expedition against Iran (1606). Meanwhile, Kuyucu Murad Pasha, who was assigned to conclude the Ottoman-Austrian wars that had been going on for years, went to Budin and made contacts, and when the ground for the agreement was prepared, the Ottoman peace committee headed by Budin Beylerbeyi Kadızâde Ali Pasha and the Austrian delegates Baron de Mollard and Comte Althan arrived in Zitvatorok. They came together. After a twenty-three-day negotiation, a seventeen-article agreement was signed. According to the provisions of the Treaty of Zitvatorok, the annual tribute of 30,000 ducats of gold, which Austria had been paying since the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, was abolished, whereas Emperor II. Rodolphe agreed to pay a one-time compensation of 200,000 black kuruş. The sultan and the emperor were considered equal and it was decided that the emperor would henceforth be called "Roman Emperor" instead of "king". It was agreed that both parties should refrain from harming each other. With these provisions, the Ottoman Empire took a step back, and with the acceptance of the principle of equality between the two rulers, the absolute Turkish superiority over the European states disappeared. In addition, it was erroneous to mention an old treaty signed by the King of Transylvania, Bocskai, with the emperor in Vienna, among the provisions of the treaty, and after Bocskai's death, the emperor claimed rights in Transylvania according to this article, thus Transylvania became a matter of dispute. Historians generally agree that the growth of the Ottoman Empire stopped with this treaty. The Jelali rebellions, which had been going on for years in Anatolia, played a major role in the acceptance of the Treaty of Zitvatorok by the Ottomans, which was revised in 1608, 1615 and 1616.

The discontent against the state in Anatolia, which started due to the Ottoman-Austrian struggles, reached its highest level with the excessive taxation from the people, and the weakening of the timar-owned sipahis caused the rebellion movements to expand and spread, thus causing the Celali rebellions to reach their peak. Tavil Ahmed, who rebelled immediately after Ahmed I ascended to the throne, defeated Celali serdar Nasuh Pasha and Anatolian Beylerbeyi Kecdehan Ali Pasha. An attempt was made to prevent Tavil Ahmed's rebellion by granting him the title of Shahrizor governor in 1605, but after a while he rebelled again and captured Harput. Tavil's son Mehmed also obtained the governorship of Baghdad with a false edict and defeated Nasuh Pasha, who was sent to him. Baghdad could only be saved from the rebels in 1607. On the other hand, the rebel Canbolatoğlu Ali Pasha became stronger by uniting with the Druze sheikh Ma'noğlu Fahreddin in Lebanon, and by defeating the Emir of Tripoli, Seyfoğlu Yûsuf, he spread his influence to the Adana region, and even established an army loyal to him and had coins cut in his name. Meanwhile, Hüseyin Pasha, who was appointed as the governor of Aleppo, was defeated by Canbolatoğlu's man Cemşid. After the execution of Grand Vizier Derviş Pasha (1606), who caused the rebellions to expand due to his helplessness against the Celalis, Kuyucu Murad Pasha, who was appointed as vizier, moved towards Syria with Tiryakî Hasan Pasha next to him.

The Grand Vizier appeared to forgive the Celalis in Anatolia and gave the Ankara sanjak principality to Kalenderoğlu, who appeared around Manisa and Bursa, and then marched on Canbolatoğlu. During the war that took place in the Oruç plain, the Ottoman army was first in a difficult situation against the rebel army with 30,000 rifle soldiers; However, the rebels were defeated and devastated on October 24, 1607, thanks to the efforts of Murad Pasha. Thereupon, Ma'noğlu Fahreddin fled to Lebanon with his tribes; Canbolatoğlu, on the other hand, escaped from the hands of the grand vizier and came to Istanbul and took refuge in the sultan. The Sultan first gave him the province of Timyshvar and then Belgrade, but he was beheaded there too because he oppressed the people. Kalenderoğlu, on the other hand, rebelled again when he was not allowed into the city by the people of Ankara, but was defeated by Murad Pasha's army in Alaçayır and fled to Iran. Kuyucu Murad Pasha, who continued his campaign and eliminated large and small Celali chiefs in Central Anatolia, returned to Istanbul despite the efforts of his opponents to send him on an expedition against Iran. After a while, he managed to eliminate the remaining Celali chiefs by inviting them to join the army under the pretext of organizing an expedition to Iran. When peace was restored in Anatolia, the opportunity for an expedition to Iran arose, and Murad Pasha marched on Shah Abbas in Tabriz in 1610. However, there was no encounter and Murad Pasha, who retired to Diyarbekir for the winter, died here (1611).

As the rebellions increased in Anatolia, most of the people left their villages, many villages were devastated, and some military classes took the villages whose people were dispersed under their control as if they were their "property". For this reason, the treasury was deprived of income and avarız taxes.

The new grand vizier Nasuh Pasha chose not to engage in a fight with Iran; Meanwhile, Shah Abbas declared that he was in favor of peace by paying an annual tax of 200 loads of silk; Thus, the Ottoman-Safavid treaty was signed on 20 November 1612. With this treaty, which is known in history as the Nasuh Pasha Treaty, the borders determined in 1555 were taken as basis; Additionally, Shah Abbas promised to send the promised amount of silk every year.

Meanwhile, the Kingdom of Spain and its allies, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Knights of Malta, were raiding the Ottoman coast in the Mediterranean. In 1611, a Maltese fleet attacked Gördüs (Corinth) and took 500 prisoners, and in 1612, a Tuscan fleet took 1200 prisoners from Kos. While the European allies' raids on the coastal cities continued in this way, first Kaptanıderyâ Öküz Mehmed Pasha defeated Ma'noğlu Fahreddin, who cooperated with the Christian states. Then, Halil Pasha encountered about ten Maltese pirate ships in Cypriot waters; By defeating them, he managed to destroy the largest ship of the period, "Karacehennem". Meanwhile, sailors named Memi Kaptan and Lala Câfer also inflicted heavy losses on the enemy. Halil Pasha, who was appointed captain for the second time by Ahmed I, who attached great importance to the reinforcement of the navy, not only sent soldiers to Malta but also eliminated Uncle Sefer, the head of the local levends in Tripoli. Meanwhile, the Cossacks, taking advantage of the fleet's presence in the Mediterranean, raided Sinop and completely plundered and destroyed the city, but were later severely punished. The Ottoman navy experienced a successful period during the reign of Ahmed I.

The agreement with Iran was broken after the promised 200 loads of silk were not sent, Incili Mustafa Sergeant, who went with the embassy, ​​was detained and Shah Abbas I sent soldiers to Georgia. On May 22, 1615, Grand Vizier Öküz Mehmed Pasha was assigned to campaign on Iran. However, Mehmed Pasha postponed the expedition to the following year, and Shah Abbas took advantage of this situation and took countermeasures and destroyed Ganja. Meanwhile, after the Iranian ambassador who came to Istanbul returned empty-handed, Mehmed Pasha, who moved from Aleppo with a large army in April 1616, came to Kars, fortified it and sent forces to Revan and Nihavend. After a while, he personally marched on Revan, defeated an Iranian army and besieged Revan. However, due to the lack of siege cannons in the army, the Mazenderan soldiers resisting violently, and the shah's assurance that he would fulfill the provisions of the agreement, he withdrew the army to Erzurum. Thus, Öküz Mehmed Pasha, whose Revan expedition ended in failure, was dismissed because his rivals were also active against him. Ahmed I also rejected the provisions of the treaty accepted by Mehmed Pasha and asked to continue the Iranian campaign and appointed the new grand vizier Halil Pasha as serdar. While Halil Pasha went to Diyarbekir winter camp for the campaign, Crimean Khan Canbek Giray also raided Ganja, Nakhchivan and Julfa.

While the events in Iran were continuing, Polish nobleman Samuel Korezky entered Moldavia with an army of Cossacks and expelled Voivode Stefan. The Ottoman Empire gave the Moldavian affairs to the Bosnian Beylerbeyi İskender Pasha. He also moved to Moldavia with some soldiers and returned to Istanbul with the 500 Kazakh prisoners he took after defeating Korezky. After this, Iskender Pasha, who was responsible for solving the Kazakh issue from its roots, moved towards the Turla river to encounter the Polish army and the forces of the voivodes of Wallachia, Moldavia and Transylvania. While the two armies were about to meet, upon the request of the Poles, a peace table was held and the terms of the agreement were determined (September 27, 1617). According to these conditions, the Cossacks would not pass Turla and would not go down to the Black Sea, and the Tatars would not raid Poland; Poland, on the other hand, would continue to pay the taxes it was paying.

After the ascension of Ahmed I, the commercial agreements with England, France and Venice were renewed, and in the agreement made with France, it was decided that the Spanish, Portuguese, Catalans, Ragusans, Genoese, Anconans and Florentines could trade under the French flag. The first commercial agreement was made with the Netherlands in July 1612.

Ahmed I died on November 22, 1617, at the age of twenty-eight, as a result of a stomach illness that lasted fifty-one days. He gained the trust of the people because he was a religious and charitable sultan who did not indulge in pleasures. He was of a harsh nature; He would not forgive those who betrayed him, and because of his harshness, he would sometimes be cruel even to those who served the state. It is known that he was interested in hunting and javelin games, and that he occasionally went hunting in Edirne and Bursa. Sultan Ahmed, who was a poet and used the pseudonym Bahtî in his poems, had a small divan (Millet Ktp., Ali Emîrî Efendi, Verse, no. 53).
One of the important changes of the time of Ahmed I was in the issue of the succession of the sultanate. In the enthronement, which did not have any rules until then, after this sultan, "ekberiyet" and "erşediyet", that is, the procedure of the eldest member of the dynasty ascending to the throne, was adopted, and the other princes began to be kept behind cages in a special place in the palace. By complying with this law, Mustafa I succeeded Sultan Ahmed.

The Sultan Ahmed Mosque, which is considered one of the largest structures in Ottoman history and has an important place in the history of art due to its architectural features, was built by him, and he personally worked until he was sweating with a golden pickaxe while laying the foundation. This mosque formed a complete social complex with the madrasa, soup kitchen, tabhane, hospital, school and shops next to it. Ahmed I repaired the walls of the Kaaba, which were about to collapse, by sending masters from Istanbul, renewed the inscription and the golden gutter on the door of the Kaaba, and also had sixteen belts made of pure gold and silver to hold the walls and sent them to Mecca. Apart from these, he sent a pulpit made of white marble in Istanbul to Medina and replaced the old pulpit of the Masjid an-Nabawi. It is known that Ahmed I, who also had his father's tomb built, built the Kavak Palace Mosque in Üsküdar and the Istavroz Mosque in Beylerbeyi, which do not exist today. In addition to the fountain in Eyüp, the fountains he had built in Alemdar, Tophane, Tersane, Üsküdar Kavak Pier and Haydarpaşa were destroyed during the development activities. For the first time in its era, tobacco imports were allowed, and a nationwide alcohol ban was imposed.