Napoleon Bonaparte Exile: A Strategic Mercy of European Monarchies
Napoleon Bonaparte, thought to be one of the most influential and polarizing men in history, was, after his abdication in 1814 and again in 1815, exiled rather than executed. On the surface, the monarchies of Europe did have their reasons to do so. After all, he was the man who sought to bring the British economy to its knees, implementing the so-called continental system. The man who on more than one occasion embarrassed the Austrian and especially the Prussian military, thought to be at the time the mightiest land army in the world. He was a person first admired by his Alexander, but would later be branded as a tyrant and an enemy of the Orthodox faith by the same man. But above anything else, he was a man that completely disrupted the balance of power in Europe. He would endanger the hegemony of the British Empire up to that time, and while he was alive, there was always the possibility that he would do so again. But, on closer inspection, it isn't quite as simple as it seems. and a more nuanced approach is necessary.
Factual background
Following the failed Russian campaign in 1812, which proved to be disastrous for France, Napoleon's army started the retreat during the winter. The cold, disease and Russian guerrilla tactics ravaged what remained of Napoleon's military. Soon after, France suffered another defeat on the other side of the continent in June of 1813. Spanish, Portuguese and British forces, under the command of Wellington, secured a victory against France in the Peninsular War following the Battle of Vitoria. Napoleon was therefore in a dire situation, because France was threatened on two fronts.
Outnumbered and outgunned, Napoleon's forces were stretched thin and were soundly defeated in mid-October of 1813 following the Battle of the Nations near Leipzig, which proved to be the bloodiest military conflict in Europe prior to World War I. Defeated, Napoleon withdrew to France and was eventually forced to abdicate in April of 1814.
Under the political influence of Tsar Alexander, Napoleon was exiled to Elba. But the conditions under which he was exiled were rather lenient. Elba became an independent state under the rule of Napoleon himself. He also retained the title of Emperor and was given 600 men under his command as his personal guard. Not to mention that because of the geographical proximity of the island to France and Italy, Napoleon could still easily exercise his influence over his supporters in said countries.
Bonaparte remained in Elba a little less than a year, and while he was there he observed attentively the political situation in France and Europe as a whole. He recognized that the alliance between the members of the coalition was weakening over territorial disputes. Napoleon was also aware of the dissatisfaction of the French people over the return of the French Empire to its old borders. It was also evident that the French military did not support the return of the Bourbon dynasty under the rule of Louis XVIII, brother of Louis XVI, as the new king of France. Soon after, Napoleon decided to seize the moment, escape Elba, and return to power. He was able to do this partly because of the support of the French military, but also because the island wasn't heavily guarded by the British fleet. His return to France signified the beginning of the Hundred Days' War, which would end with the final defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June of 1815. After his surrender and unconditional abdication, he was again exiled, but this time to the faraway island of St. Helen, thereby being completely cut off from Europe. He was stripped of his title as emperor and he had significantly less men under his command during his exile on the island of Elba. He would remain there until his death in 1821.
Why didn't they kill him?
It is important to note that after his escape from Elba, the animosity of the coalition towards the man grew substantially, and Napoleon was branded as a criminal and an enemy of humanity. Soon after, calls for his execution appeared in certain circles, most notably in the Prussian military. Other members of the coalition mostly didn't share this sentiment and sought less extreme ways to deal with Bonaparte. This is one of the reasons his life was spared. He simply didn't surrender to the Prussians, but to the British, who proved to be more lenient towards him. But the question still remains, why did the rest of the coalition not bump his head, but instead supported his exile on two occasions no less?
Part of the answer can be found in a letter sent by Wellington to the British diplomat Charles Stuart, regarding the Prussian Field Marshal Gebhard Leverich von Blücher, which reads as follows: Blücher wishes to kill him, but I have told him that I shall remonstrate and shall insist upon his being disposed of by common accord. I have likewise said that, as a private friend, I advised him to have nothing to do with so foul a transaction, that he and I had acted two distinguished parts in these transactions to become executioners, and that I was determined that if the sovereigns wished to put him to death, they should appoint an executioner which should not be me.
This letter tells that Wellington was almost repulsed by the idea of executing Napoleon, and that executing a ruler simply wouldn't be common practice at the time. That leads to one of the reasons as to why they didn't execute him; It was simply taboo to kill a sovereign. Killing a ruler was generally avoided throughout the Middle Ages and continued into the Napoleonic era. Killing a ruler of a country incites unrest in the populace and creates additional political problems. It creates fertile ground for rebellion, and general instability in the region, and it also sets a dangerous precedent for future conflicts.
For these reasons, exile of sovereigns usually was the preferred way to dispose of your enemies so as to ensure stability. Because there wasn't any adequate technology with which they could communicate at long distances in a short amount of time, moving a ruler to a relatively distant location ensured that they wouldn't pose any immediate danger. So in essence, they feared that they would make Napoleon a martyr with his execution. Napoleon was by and large still popular in France.
Why was Napoleon loved?
Even after years of war, destruction and bloodshed, Napoleon was still loved, especially by the French military, and there are several reasons for this. Apart from the fact that he was a brilliant politician, leader and reformer of the French military, it is also important to recognize that Napoleon didn't initiate most of the wars during his reign, which made it easy for him to present himself as a genius and valiant defender of the French people. Because the coalitions of Europe initiated most of the conflicts during the Napoleonic era, Napoleon usually used this to justify the expansion of the borders of the French Empire and the creation of puppet states throughout Europe.
The people of France celebrated the initial prestige and plunder that Napoleon brought to his country through his military accomplishments and political skill. In general, they supported the expansion of the Empire wholeheartedly. Also, even though one might think that proclaiming himself as the Emperor he would be labeled as a traitor to the Republic, it is important to note that Napoleon was by the time of the Brumaire coup in 1799 undoubtedly the most celebrated and respected general in France. He also enjoyed great fame from the Italian campaign in which his victories led him to dictate a peace treaty to Austria more than six years before he became emperor, and from then his support only continued to rise.
What's more, at least formally, Napoleon never abolished the first French Republic. According to the constitution of year 12, Napoleon wasn't the Emperor of France, but Emperor of the French. The text of the constitution that proclaimed this reads as follows: The government of the French Republic is entrusted to an emperor, who takes the title of Emperor of the French. Justice is administered in the name of the emperor by the officers whom he appoints. This implied, at least formally, that the French Republic still existed and that its ideals still survive.
An additional reason for his general support was his effective use of propaganda. Even when he suffered military disasters, such as his military campaign in Egypt, he carefully cherry-picked the news that reached France in such a way to present himself in better light. He almost completely suppressed his military failures in the press, and regarding the Egyptian campaign, most of his downfalls were usually blamed on the deceased general Jean-Baptiste Clavert. It can be said that the French campaign in Egypt almost benefited his political rise to power.
Another clear example of his expert use of propaganda are the numerous paintings and other pieces of art commissioned by Napoleon himself, the most famous of which were painted by Jacques-Louis David, who was then regarded as the leading painter in all of France.
His painting, Napoleon crossing the Alps, best exemplifies the ideas the emperor wanted to express through artwork. Napoleon is depicted as riding a horse with a specific hand gesture, a frequent motif in David's work that illustrates his commanding presence. Beneath him is his own name etched in stone, next to the names of famed military commanders Hannibal and Charlemagne, the centuries before him also famously crossed the same mountain range. This signifies that Napoleon is their successor, and that his name will be etched in history and mentioned alongside revered military leaders.
