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Teachings and miracles

Main articles: Sermon on the Mount, Parables of Jesus, and Miracles of Jesus
See also: Sermon on the Plain, Five Discourses of Matthew, Farewell Discourse, Olivet Discourse, and Bread of Life Discourse
Jesus and the rich young man by Heinrich Hofmann, 1889
In the Synoptics, Jesus teaches extensively, often in parables,[168] about the Kingdom of God (or, in Matthew, the Kingdom of Heaven). The Kingdom is described as both imminent[169] and already present in the ministry of Jesus.[170] Jesus promises inclusion in the Kingdom for those who accept his message.[171] He talks of the "Son of man", an apocalyptic figure who will come to gather the chosen.[24]
Jesus calls people to repent their sins and to devote themselves completely to God.[24] He tells his followers to adhere to Jewish law, although he is perceived by some to have broken the law himself, for example regarding the Sabbath.[24] When asked what the greatest commandment is, Jesus replies: "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind ... And a second is like it: 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself.'"[172] Other ethical teachings of Jesus include loving your enemies, refraining from hatred and lust, turning the other cheek, and forgiving people who have sinned against you.[173][174]
John's Gospel presents the teachings of Jesus not merely as his own preaching, but as divine revelation. John the Baptist, for example, states in John 3:34: "He whom God has sent speaks the words of God, for he gives the Spirit without measure." In John 7:16 Jesus says, "My teaching is not mine but his who sent me." He asserts the same thing in John 14:10: "Do you not believe that I am in the Father and the Father is in me? The words that I say to you I do not speak on my own; but the Father who dwells in me does his works."[175][176]
The Return of the Prodigal Son by Pompeo Batoni, 1773
Approximately 30 parables form about one-third of Jesus' recorded teachings.[175][177] The parables appear within longer sermons and at other places in the narrative.[178] They often contain symbolism, and usually relate the physical world to the spiritual.[179][180] Common themes in these tales include the kindness and generosity of God and the perils of transgression.[181] Some of his parables, such as the Prodigal Son,[182] are relatively simple, while others, such as the Growing Seed,[183] are sophisticated, profound and abstruse.[184] When asked by his disciples why he speaks in parables to the people, Jesus replies that the chosen disciples have been given to "know the secrets of the kingdom of heaven", unlike the rest of their people, "For the one who has will be given more and he will have in abundance. But the one who does not have will be deprived even more", going on to say that the majority of their generation have grown "dull hearts" and thus are unable to understand.[185]
Jesus cleansing a leper, medieval mosaic from the Monreale Cathedral, late 12th to mid-13th centuries
In the gospel accounts, Jesus devotes a large portion of his ministry to performing miracles, especially healings.[186] The miracles can be classified into two main categories: healing miracles and nature miracles.[187][188][189] The healing miracles include cures for physical ailments, exorcisms,[74][190] and resurrections of the dead.[191][192][193][194] The nature miracles show Jesus' power over nature, and include turning water into wine, walking on water, and calming a storm, among others. Jesus states that his miracles are from a divine source. When his opponents suddenly accuse him of performing exorcisms by the power of Beelzebul, the prince of demons, Jesus counters that he performs them by the "Spirit of God" (Matthew 12:28) or "finger of God", arguing that all logic suggests that Satan would not let his demons assist the Children of God because it would divide Satan's house and bring his kingdom to desolation; furthermore, he asks his opponents that if he exorcises by Beelzebub, "by whom do your sons cast them out?"[195][196][197] In Matthew 12:31–32, he goes on to say that while all manner of sin, "even insults against God" or "insults against the son of man", shall be forgiven, whoever insults goodness (or "The Holy Spirit") shall never be forgiven; they carry the guilt of their sin forever.
In John, Jesus' miracles are described as "signs", performed to prove his mission and divinity.[198][199] In the Synoptics, when asked by some teachers of the Law and some Pharisees to give miraculous signs to prove his authority, Jesus refuses,[198] saying that no sign shall come to corrupt and evil people except the sign of the prophet Jonah. Also, in the Synoptic Gospels, the crowds regularly respond to Jesus' miracles with awe and press on him to heal their sick. In John's Gospel, Jesus is presented as unpressured by the crowds, who often respond to his miracles with trust and faith.[200] One characteristic shared among all miracles of Jesus in the gospel accounts is that he performed them freely and never requested or accepted any form of payment.[201] The gospel episodes that include descriptions of the miracles of Jesus also often include teachings, and the miracles themselves involve an element of teaching.[202][203] Many of the miracles teach the importance of faith. In the cleansing of ten lepers and the raising of Jairus's daughter, for instance, the beneficiaries are told that their healing was due to their faith.[204][205]

Proclamation as Christ and Transfiguration

Main articles: Confession of Peter and Transfiguration of Jesus
The Transfiguration of Jesus, depicted by Carl Bloch, 19th century
At about the middle of each of the three Synoptic Gospels are two significant events: the Confession of Peter and the Transfiguration of Jesus.[154][206][134][135] These two events are not mentioned in the Gospel of John.[207]
In his Confession, Peter tells Jesus, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God."[208][209][210] Jesus affirms that Peter's confession is divinely revealed truth.[211][212] After the confession, Jesus tells his disciples about his upcoming death and resurrection.[213]
In the Transfiguration,[214][134][135][154] Jesus takes Peter and two other apostles up an unnamed mountain, where "he was transfigured before them, and his face shone like the sun, and his clothes became dazzling white".[215] A bright cloud appears around them, and a voice from the cloud says, "This is my Son, the Beloved; with him I am well pleased; listen to him."[216][134]

Passion Week

The description of the last week of the life of Jesus (often called Passion Week) occupies about one-third of the narrative in the canonical gospels,[85] starting with Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem and ending with his Crucifixion.[127][158]

Activities in Jerusalem

Main articles: Triumphal entry into Jerusalem, Cleansing of the Temple, and Bargain of Judas
A painting of Jesus' final entry into Jerusalem, by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1897
In the Synoptics, the last week in Jerusalem is the conclusion of the journey through Perea and Judea that Jesus began in Galilee.[158] Jesus rides a young donkey into Jerusalem, reflecting the tale of the Messiah's Donkey, an oracle from the Book of Zechariah in which the Jews' humble king enters Jerusalem this way.[217][52] People along the way lay cloaks and small branches of trees (known as palm fronds) in front of him and sing part of Psalms 118:25–26.[218][219][220][221]
Jesus next expels the money changers from the Second Temple, accusing them of turning it into a den of thieves through their commercial activities. He then prophesies about the coming destruction, including false prophets, wars, earthquakes, celestial disorders, persecution of the faithful, the appearance of an "abomination of desolation", and unendurable tribulations.[222] The mysterious "Son of Man", he says, will dispatch angels to gather the faithful from all parts of the earth.[223] Jesus warns that these wonders will occur in the lifetimes of the hearers.[224][149] In John, the Cleansing of the Temple occurs at the beginning of Jesus' ministry instead of at the end.[225][81]
Jesus comes into conflict with the Jewish elders, such as when they question his authority and when he criticizes them and calls them hypocrites.[219][221] Judas Iscariot, one of the twelve apostles, secretly strikes a bargain with the Jewish elders, agreeing to betray Jesus to them for 30 silver coins.[226][227]
The Gospel of John recounts two other feasts in which Jesus taught in Jerusalem before the Passion Week.[228][116] In Bethany, a village near Jerusalem, Jesus raises Lazarus from the dead. This potent sign[81] increases the tension with authorities,[158] who conspire to kill him.[229][116] Mary of Bethany anoints Jesus' feet, foreshadowing his entombment.[230] Jesus then makes his messianic entry into Jerusalem.[116] The cheering crowds greeting Jesus as he enters Jerusalem add to the animosity between him and the establishment.[158] In John, Jesus has already cleansed the Second Temple during an earlier Passover visit to Jerusalem. John next recounts Jesus' Last Supper with his disciples.[116]

Last Supper

Main article: Last Supper
See also: Jesus predicts his betrayal, Denial of Peter, and Last Supper in Christian art
The Last Supper, depicted by Juan de Juanes, c. 1562
The Last Supper is the final meal that Jesus shares with his twelve apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is mentioned in all four canonical gospels; Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians[231] also refers to it.[37][38][232] During the meal, Jesus predicts that one of his apostles will betray him.[233] Despite each Apostle's assertion that he would not betray him, Jesus reiterates that the betrayer would be one of those present. Matthew 26:23–25 and John 13:26–27 specifically identify Judas as the traitor.[37][38][233]
In the Synoptics, Jesus takes bread, breaks it, and gives it to the disciples, saying, "This is my body, which is given for you". He then has them all drink from a cup, saying, "This cup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood."[234][37][235] The Christian sacrament or ordinance of the Eucharist is based on these events.[236] Although the Gospel of John does not include a description of the bread-and-wine ritual during the Last Supper, most scholars agree that John 6:22–59 (the Bread of Life Discourse) has a eucharistic character and resonates with the institution narratives in the Synoptic Gospels and in the Pauline writings on the Last Supper.[237]
In all four gospels, Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowledge of him three times before the rooster crows the next morning.[238][239] In Luke and John, the prediction is made during the Supper.[240] In Matthew and Mark, the prediction is made after the Supper; Jesus also predicts that all his disciples will desert him.[241][242] The Gospel of John provides the only account of Jesus washing his disciples' feet after the meal.[103] John also includes a long sermon by Jesus, preparing his disciples (now without Judas) for his departure. Chapters 14–17 of the Gospel of John are known as the Farewell Discourse and are a significant source of Christological content.[243][244]

Agony in the Garden, betrayal, and arrest

Main articles: Agony in the Garden, Kiss of Judas, and Arrest of Jesus
A depiction of the kiss of Judas and arrest of Jesus, by Caravaggio, c. 1602
In the Synoptics, Jesus and his disciples go to the garden Gethsemane, where Jesus prays to be spared his coming ordeal. Then Judas comes with an armed mob, sent by the chief priests, scribes and elders. He kisses Jesus to identify him to the crowd, which then arrests Jesus. In an attempt to stop them, an unnamed disciple of Jesus uses a sword to cut off the ear of a man in the crowd. After Jesus' arrest, his disciples go into hiding, and Peter, when questioned, thrice denies knowing Jesus. After the third denial, Peter hears the rooster crow and recalls Jesus' prediction about his denial. Peter then weeps bitterly.[242][149][238]
In John 18:1–11, Jesus does not pray to be spared his crucifixion, as the gospel portrays him as scarcely touched by such human weakness.[245] The people who arrest him are Roman soldiers and Temple guards.[246] Instead of being betrayed by a kiss, Jesus proclaims his identity, and when he does, the soldiers and officers fall to the ground. The gospel identifies Peter as the disciple who used the sword, and Jesus rebukes him for it.

Trials by the Sanhedrin, Herod, and Pilate

Main articles: Sanhedrin trial of Jesus, Pilate's Court, and Jesus at Herod's Court
See also: Jesus, King of the Jews; John 18:38; and Ecce homo
After his arrest, Jesus is taken late at night to the private residence of the high priest, Caiaphas, who had been installed by Pilate's predecessor, the Roman procurator Valerius Gratus.[247] The Sanhedrin was a Jewish judicial body.[248] The gospel accounts differ on the details of the trials.[249] In Matthew 26:57, Mark 14:53 and Luke 22:54, Jesus is taken to the house of the high priest, Caiaphas, where he is mocked and beaten that night. Early the next morning, the chief priests and scribes lead Jesus away into their council.[250][251][252] John 18:12–14 states that Jesus is first taken to Annas, Caiaphas's father-in-law, and then to the high priest.[250][251][252]
Ecce homo! Antonio Ciseri's 1871 depiction of Pontius Pilate presenting Jesus to the public
During the trials Jesus speaks very little, mounts no defence, and gives very infrequent and indirect answers to the priests' questions, prompting an officer to slap him. In Matthew 26:62, Jesus' unresponsiveness leads Caiaphas to ask him, "Have you no answer?"[250][251][252] In Mark 14:61 the high priest then asks Jesus, "Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?" Jesus replies, "I am", and then predicts the coming of the Son of Man.[24] This provokes Caiaphas to tear his own robe in anger and to accuse Jesus of blasphemy. In Matthew and Luke, Jesus' answer is more ambiguous:[24][253] in Matthew 26:64 he responds, "You have said so", and in Luke 22:70 he says, "You say that I am".[254][255]
The Jewish elders take Jesus to Pilate's Court and ask the Roman governor, Pontius Pilate, to judge and condemn Jesus for various allegations: subverting the nation, opposing the payment of tribute, claiming to be Christ, a King, and claiming to be the son of God.[256][252] The use of the word "king" is central to the discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In John 18:36 Jesus states, "My kingdom is not from this world", but he does not unequivocally deny being the King of the Jews.[257][258] In Luke 23:7–15, Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean, and thus comes under the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas, the Tetrarch of Galilee and Perea.[259][260] Pilate sends Jesus to Herod to be tried,[261] but Jesus says almost nothing in response to Herod's questions. Herod and his soldiers mock Jesus, put an expensive robe on him to make him look like a king, and return him to Pilate,[259] who then calls together the Jewish elders and announces that he has "not found this man guilty".[261]
Observing a Passover custom of the time, Pilate allows one prisoner chosen by the crowd to be released. He gives the people a choice between Jesus and a murderer called Barabbas (בר-אבא or Bar-abbâ, "son of the father", from the common given name Abba: 'father').[262] Persuaded by the elders,[263] the mob chooses to release Barabbas and crucify Jesus.[264] Pilate writes a sign in Hebrew, Latin, and Greek that reads "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews" (abbreviated as INRI in depictions) to be affixed to Jesus' cross,[265][266] then scourges Jesus and sends him to be crucified. The soldiers place a crown of thorns on Jesus' head and ridicule him as the King of the Jews. They beat and taunt him before taking him to Calvary,[267] also called Golgotha, for crucifixion.[250][252][268]

Crucifixion and entombment

Main articles: Crucifixion of Jesus and Burial of Jesus
See also: Sayings of Jesus on the cross and Crucifixion darkness
Pietro Perugino's depiction of the Crucifixion as Stabat Mater, 1482
Jesus' crucifixion is described in all four canonical gospels. After the trials, Jesus is led to Calvary carrying his cross; the route traditionally thought to have been taken is known as the Via Dolorosa. The three Synoptic Gospels indicate that Simon of Cyrene assists him, having been compelled by the Romans to do so.[269][270] In Luke 23:27–28, Jesus tells the women in the multitude of people following him not to weep for him but for themselves and their children.[269] At Calvary, Jesus is offered a sponge soaked in a concoction usually offered as a painkiller. According to Matthew and Mark, he refuses it.[269][270]
The soldiers then crucify Jesus and cast lots for his clothes. Above Jesus' head on the cross is Pilate's inscription, "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews". Soldiers and passersby mock him about it. Two convicted thieves are crucified along with Jesus. In Matthew and Mark, both thieves mock Jesus. In Luke, one of them rebukes Jesus, while the other defends him.[269][271][272] Jesus tells the latter: "today you will be with me in Paradise".[273] The four gospels mention the presence of a group of female disciples of Jesus at the crucifixion. In John, Jesus sees his mother Mary and the beloved disciple and tells him to take care of her.[274]
In John 19:33–34, Roman soldiers break the two thieves' legs to hasten their death, but not those of Jesus, as he is already dead. Instead, one soldier pierces Jesus' side with a lance, and blood and water flow out.[271] The Synoptics report a period of darkness, and the heavy curtain in the Temple is torn when Jesus dies. In Matthew 27:51–54, an earthquake breaks open tombs. In Matthew and Mark, terrified by the events, a Roman centurion states that Jesus was the Son of God.[269][275]
On the same day, Joseph of Arimathea, with Pilate's permission and with Nicodemus's help, removes Jesus' body from the cross, wraps him in a clean cloth, and buries him in his new rock-hewn tomb.[269] In Matthew 27:62–66, on the following day the chief Jewish priests ask Pilate for the tomb to be secured, and with Pilate's permission the priests place seals on the large stone covering the entrance.[269][276]

Resurrection and ascension

Main articles: Resurrection of Jesus, Empty tomb, and Ascension of Jesus
Further information: Overview of resurrection appearances in the Gospels and Paul
See also: Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art and Ascension of Jesus in Christian art
Appearance of Jesus Christ to Maria Magdalena by Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov, 1835
The Gospels do not describe the moment of the resurrection of Jesus. They describe the discovery of his empty tomb and several appearances of Jesus, with distinct differences in each narrative.[277]
In the four Gospels, Mary Magdalene goes to the tomb on Sunday morning, alone or with one or several other women.[278] The tomb is empty, with the stone rolled away, and there are one or two angels, depending on the accounts. In the Synoptics, the women are told that Jesus is not here and that he is risen.[279] In Mark and Matthew, the angel also instructs them to tell the disciples to meet Jesus in Galilee.[280] In Luke, Peter visits the tomb after he is told it is empty.[281] In John, he goes there with the beloved disciple.[282] Matthew mentions Roman guards at the tomb,[283] who report to the priests of Jerusalem what happened. The priests bribe them to say that the disciples stole Jesus' body during the night.[284]
The four Gospels then describe various appearances of Jesus in his resurrected body. Jesus first reveals himself to Mary Magdalene in Mark 16:9 and John 20:14–17,[285] along with "the other Mary" in Matthew 28:9,[286] while in Luke the first reported appearance is to two disciples heading to Emmaus.[287] Jesus then reveals himself to the eleven disciples, in Jerusalem or in Galilee.[288] In Luke 24:36–43, he eats and shows them his tangible wounds to prove that he is not a spirit.[289] He also shows them to Thomas to end his doubts, in John 20:24–29.[290] In the Synoptics, Jesus commissions the disciples to spread the gospel message to all nations,[103][291] while in John 21, he tells Peter to take care of his sheep.[44][292]
Jesus' ascension into Heaven is described in Luke 24:50–53, Acts 1:1–11 and mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16. In the Acts of the Apostles, forty days after the Resurrection, as the disciples look on, "he was lifted up, and a cloud took him out of their sight". 1 Peter 3:22 states that Jesus has "gone into heaven and is at the right hand of God".[44]
The Acts of the Apostles describes several appearances of Jesus after his Ascension. In Acts 7:55, Stephen gazes into heaven and sees "Jesus standing at the right hand of God" just before his death.[293] On the road to Damascus, the Apostle Paul is converted to Christianity after seeing a blinding light and hearing a voice saying, "I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting."[294] In Acts 9:10–18, Jesus instructs Ananias of Damascus in a vision to heal Paul.[295] The Book of Revelation includes a revelation from Jesus concerning the last days of Earth.[296]

Early Christianity

Main article: Early Christianity
A 3rd-century depiction of Jesus as the Good Shepherd
After Jesus' life, his followers, as described in the first chapters of the Acts of the Apostles, were all Jews either by birth or conversion, for which the biblical term "proselyte" is used,[297] and referred to by historians as Jewish Christians. The early Gospel message was spread orally, probably in Aramaic,[298] but almost immediately also in Greek.[299] The New Testament's Acts of the Apostles and Epistle to the Galatians record that the first Christian community was centered in Jerusalem and its leaders included Peter, James, the brother of Jesus, and John the Apostle.[300]
After his conversion, Paul the Apostle spread the teachings of Jesus to various non-Jewish communities throughout the eastern Mediterranean region. Paul's influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than that of any other New Testament author.[301] By the end of the 1st century, Christianity began to be recognized internally and externally as a separate religion from Judaism which itself was refined and developed further in the centuries after the destruction of the Second Temple.[302]
Numerous quotations in the New Testament and other Christian writings of the first centuries, indicate that early Christians generally used and revered the Hebrew Bible (the Tanakh) as religious text, mostly in the Greek (Septuagint) or Aramaic (Targum) translations.[303]
Early Christians wrote many religious works, including the ones included in the canon of the New Testament. The canonical texts, which have become the main sources used by historians to try to understand the historical Jesus and sacred texts within Christianity, were probably written between 50 and 120 AD.[304]

Historical views

Main articles: Historical Jesus, Quest for the historical Jesus, and Scholarly interpretation of Gospel elements
See also: Biblical criticism
Prior to the Enlightenment, the Gospels were usually regarded as accurate historical accounts, but since then scholars have emerged who question the reliability of the Gospels and draw a distinction between the Jesus described in the Gospels and the Jesus of history.[305] Since the 18th century, three separate scholarly quests for the historical Jesus have taken place, each with distinct characteristics and based on different research criteria, which were often developed during the quest that applied them.[74][306] While there is widespread scholarly agreement on the existence of Jesus,[e] and a basic consensus on the general outline of his life,[n] the portraits of Jesus constructed by various scholars often differ from each other, and from the image portrayed in the gospel accounts.[308][309]
Approaches to the historical reconstruction of the life of Jesus have varied from the "maximalist" approaches of the 19th century, in which the gospel accounts were accepted as reliable evidence wherever it is possible, to the "minimalist" approaches of the early 20th century, where hardly anything about Jesus was accepted as historical.[310] In the 1950s, as the second quest for the historical Jesus gathered pace, the minimalist approaches faded away, and in the 21st century, minimalists such as Price are a small minority.[311][312] Although a belief in the inerrancy of the Gospels cannot be supported historically, many scholars since the 1980s have held that, beyond the few facts considered to be historically certain, certain other elements of Jesus' life are "historically probable".[311][313][314] Modern scholarly research on the historical Jesus thus focuses on identifying the most probable elements.[315][316]